𝗘𝗡𝗚𝗟𝗜𝗦𝗛 𝗡𝗢𝗧𝗘𝗦
EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH
▪NOUNS -names of people, place, thing
▪PRONOUNS -replace nouns
▪VERBS -action words
▪ADJECTIVES - describe nouns
▪ADVERBS -describe verb, adjective or adverb
▪ARTICLES -the, a, an
▪PREPOSITION -relationship between words
▪CONJUNCTIONS -connecting words
▪INTERJECTIONS -exclamation
NOUN
Types:
•Common - names in general like girl, teacher.
•Proper - specific names like Marie.
•Concrete - exist physically like Cup.
•Compound - two or more word like Rainfall.
•Countable - having singular/plural form like bike--->bikes.
•Uncountable - substances, liquids & abstract.
•Abstract - no physical existence or emotion.
• Collective - set or group like TEAM.
Functions of noun:
-subjects
-direct objects
-indirects objects
-objects of preposition
-predicate nominatives
-object complements
PRONOUN
•Interrogative Who, Where, Why
•Possessive Mine, Yours, Our
•Reflexive Myself, Herself, Himself
•Reciprocal each other, one another
•Demonstrative this, that, these, those
•Indefinite several, few, many, all
•Relative Whom, Whose, That
•Personal
Number Singular(I) Plural(We)
Person 1st (I) 2nd(You) 3rd(He)
Case Subject(We) Object(Us)
Gender Masculine(He) Feminine(She) Neuter(It)
VERB
Intransitive No object
Transitive Has object
Infinitive to + Verb
Modal may/might/will
Auxiliary helps main verb
Voice of verb
Active -subject performs action.
I eat the apple.
Passive -subject received action.
The apple was eaten by me.
Moods of Verb
Declarative I eat an apple.
Interrogative Do you eat apples?
Imperatives Eat your apple.
Verb Tenses
•Simple
Present She writes a novel.
Past She wrote a novel.
Future She will write a novel.
•Continuous (Progressive)
Present C. She is writing a novel.
Past C. She was writing a novel.
Future C. She will be writing a novel.
•Perfect
Present P. She has written a novel.
Past P. She had written a novel.
Future P. She will have written a novel.
•Perfect Continuous
Present P.C. She has been writing a novel.
Past P.C. She had been writing a novel.
Future P.C. She will have been writing a novel.
ADJECTIVE
Clean Good
Comparative Cleaner Better
Superlative Cleanest Best
Adjective phrase - group of words
E.g young handsome
Adjective clause
E.g drinking milk
ADVERB
Degrees of Comparison
Quickly
Comparative More Quickly
Superlative Most Quickly
•Manner How Quickly
•Time When Later
•Place Where Here
•Frequency How often Never
Adverbial phrase He eats in his bed.
Adverbial clause He eats because he is hungry at night.
PREPOSITIONS
Place in, out, at, behind, under, on, up
Time in, on, at
Movement from, to, on, by
CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinating: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
Correlative: both/&, either/or, neither/not
Subordinating: while, if, since, because, after
INTERJECTIONS
Hey! Ouch! Wow! Help! Alas!
SENTENCE
- group of words that are out together to mean something.
- has subject and verb.
Types:
1. SIMPLE SENTENCE has only one clause and obe independent variable.
The cat is happy.
2. COMPOUND SENTENCE has two or more clauses.
The dog is happy but the cat is sad.
3. COMPLEX SENTENCE has one clause with a relative clause.
The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy.
4. COMPLEX COMPOUND SENTENCE has many clauses, atleast one of which is a telative clause.
The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy but the cat is sad.
Purposes:
•Declarative Sentence (declaration)
The dog is happy.
•Interrogative Sentence (question)
Are you happy?
•Exclamatory Sentence (exclamation)
The dog is the happiest dog I've ever seen!
•Imperative Sentence (command)
Give the dog a bone.
Phrase -word or group of words that function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence.
Clause -verb, its necessary grammatical arguments and any adjuncts affecting them.
- verb along with its subject and their modifiers.
SENTENCE PATTERNS
Independent clause- contains subject, verb and a complete thought.
Dependent clause- contains subject, verb but no complete thought.
1. Independent Clause
The way people write has changed.
2. Independent Clause; Independent Clause
The way people write has changed ; more people are writing than ever before.
3. Independent Clause; Conjunctive Adverb , Independent Clause
The way people write has changed; in addition, more people are writing than ever before.
4. Independent Clause; Coordinating Conjunction, Independent Clause
The way people write has changed, and more people are writing than ever before.
5. Independent, Nonrestrictive Modifier, Clause
Writing, which humans have done for thousands of years, has changed.
6. Independent, Restrictive Modifier, Clause
The writing that is done in the workplace has changed.
7. Subordinate Clause, Independent Clause
Because the way people write has changed, the way we teach writing has also changed.
8. Independent Clause, Subordinate Clause
The way people write has changed though many people claim otherwise.
GRAMMAR RULES
• A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period , question or exclamation mark.
- My dog is very clever!
• The order of a basic positive sentence is Subject--Verb--Object.
- John loves Mary.
• Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. An object is optional.
- John teaches.
• The subject and verb must agree in number.
- John & Mary work in London.
• When two singular subjects are connected by or use a singular verb.
- John or Mary is coming tonight.
• Adjectives usually before a noun.
- I have a big dog.
• When using two or more adjectives together, the usual order is opinion--adj.+fact--adj.+noun.
- I saw a nice French table.
• Treat collective nouns as singular or plural.
- The committee are having sandwiches for lunch.
- My family likes going to the zoo.
• The words its and it's are two different words with different meanings.
- Here is your coffee.
- You're looking good.
• The words there, their and they're are three different words with different meanings.
- There was nobody at the part.
- I saw their new car.
- Do you think they're happy.
• The contraction he's can mean he is or he has.
- He's finished.
- He is working.
• The contraction he'd can mean he had or he would.
- He had eaten when I arrived.
- He would eat more if possible.
• Spell a proper noun with an initial capital letter.
- Is China in Asia?
• Spell a proper adjectives with an initial capital letter.
- London is an English town.
• Use a or an for countable nouns in general, the for specific countable nouns and all uncountable nouns.
- He always saves some of the money that he earns.
• Use a with words beginning with a consonant sound. Use an with words beginning with a vowel sound.
- a cat, a dog, an apple, an honorable noun
• Use many or few with countable nouns, use much or little for uncountable nouns.
- There is little traffic on the roads.
• To show possession use an apostrophe+s for singular.
• In general, use the active voice in preference to the passive voice.
PROPER SEQUENCE OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE
1. Articles
2. Opinion
3. Size
4. Age
5. Shape
6. Color
7. Material
8. Purpose
RESEARCH
It is a systematic process of investigating and getting information from a respondent.
Proximity- area of responsibility.
Importance:
1. It adds knowledge about educational issues.
2. Helps inform policy.
3. Builds researchers' skills
Steps: ( to formulate a research)
1. Identify the research problem
- specify and justify a problem.
2. Reviewing the literature
- locate the source or related studies.
3. Purpose of research
-narrow the purpose & state it clearly.
4. Collecting data
- determine the method
- select the individuals
- design data collection
- obtain permission
- gather information
5. Analyzing and Interpreting data
- break down the data
- explaining the data
- interpreting the data
6. Reporting & Evaluating Research
- determine the audience for the report
- write the report sensitively and accurately.
Types:
Quantitative - is type of research that utilizes numbers and statistical analysis.
- variables, desuctive, measure objective facts, highly structured research process, research is detached(outsider).
Qualitative- description, inductive, meaning is constructed, values are present, loosely structured research process, research is immersed (insider).
TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION
•Observation
•Interviewing
•Focus groups
•Document analysis
RESEARCH APPROACHES
1. Case study
2. Ethnography
3. Phenomenology
4. Historical
5. Action Research
THESIS WRITING STEPS:
1. Create a passionate title and background contents.
Title - defines what is the paper all about. It should be informative and included all the major key words on it.
2. Abstract which around 100 to 150 words summarizes the research. It should be firm and clear about the research, what the whole paper is going to talk about.
3. Introduction the first step of analysis and predicts the tone and direction of the research paper. It helps readers to understand the paper even they do not have any prior domain knowledge.
4. Methodology helps the journal reviewer and readers to understand the entire concept of the research.
5. Results and discussion (written in present tense) should interpret and explain your results, answer the research question, justify the approach and critically evaluate the study.
6. Make conclusion as the final summary of the results that have been managed to achieved through the research.
7. Conduct saturated literature review resulting in Gaps, Concept and Theory. It places the research to define existing data and information about the previous research paper.
8. Recommendations should explain what needs to be done next and enumerate the possible steps that are needed to be taken which helps future researchers to carry out their own studies.
9. Bibliography is the list source materials used or consulted in making the research paper.
Book: Name of author (Year of publication). Title of the book. Edition. Name and place of publication company, Page of book.
Online sources: Author (Date of publication). Title of an online periodical. Name and place of publication company. Web address
PROOF READ PROPOSAL BEFORE SUBMITTING:
• Grammar and spelling count
>Point of view consistency
- Noun and Pronoun (Person, Case & Number) agreement
>Verb tenses consistency
-Subject, Object and Verb agreement
•Format and conciseness are important
>use 12 point fonts
>use easily legible fonts
>use generous margins
> use figures appropriately to make clarify points.
• Include references to the extant work of others.
COMMUNICATION
"communicare" - to share
- act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules.
Functions of Communication
•Regulating/Control
•Social Interaction
•Motivation
•Information
•Emotional expression
The scientific study of communication can be divided into:
>Information Theory
-studies the quantification, storage and communication of information in general.
>Communication Studies
-which concerns human communication.
LANGUAGE- the method of human communication either spoken or written consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way.
DIALECT- particular form of a language which is pevuliar to a spevigic region or social group.
COMMUNICATION
Based on parties:
-External C.
-Internal C.
Based on formality
-Formal C.
-Informal C.
Based on media
-Written C.
-Verbal C.
-Non-verbal C.
Others
- Mass C.
- Personal C.
- Interpersonal C.
Elements of Communication Process
• Communicator (encoder)
• Message (symbol verbal or non-verbal)
• Channel (transmission medium)
• Receiver (decoder)
• Feedback (response)
• Noise (interruption)
7 C's of Communication
1. Clear - clear & easily understandable message.
2. Correct - exact and correct message.
3. Complete - complete & relevant message.
4. Concrete - concrete w/ no misinterpretation message.
5.Concise - brief and precise message
6. Consideration - considers receiver's opinion, knowledge and background.
7. Courteous - positive and focused at the audience.
Barriers of Communication
1. Encoding Barriers
2. Transmitting Barriers
3. Decoding Barriers
4. Responding Barriers
Overcoming the barriers of effective communication
• Connecting with the audience
• Summarizing what has been said
• Effective questions, Simple words
• Seeking participation
• Body language, Cultural sensitivity
• Checking for understanding
SPEAKING - act of making vocal sounds.
Voice Quality
Loudness -volume of voice or sounds.
Clarity -voice should be understood without any barrier.
Tone/Pitch -a peak or highest level.
Speed -rate of how fast the voice or sound.
LISTENING - ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process.
Stages of Listening
>Hearing
>Focusing on the message not the person
>Comprehending & Interpreting
>Analyzing and Evaluating
>Responding
>Remembering
Types of Communication
• Verbal Communication -when people simply speak to each other.
-Voice quality, Melody, Speech rate, Form of articulation
• Non - Verbal Communication - communicate with using speech.
1. Kinesics - body language, gestures
2. Proxemics - space
3. Haptics - touch
4. Oculesics - eye contact, gaze
5. Chronemics - time (waiting, pausing)
6. Olfactics - smell
7. Vocalics - tone, volume, speed of voice
8. Sound symbols - grunting
9. Silence- pausing, secrecy
10. Posture - position of the body, stance
11. Adornment -clothing, jewellery
12. Locomotion- walking, running
13. Physical rex'ns - blushing, pale
Formality
Formal communication channel results from the formal organization structure.
A-->B-->C-->D-->E
Informal communication- informal contacts among people.
-grapevine
-comments, advices, suggestions, informal talks and reactions.
PHONETICS - study of human sounds.
Types:
1. Articulatory -accdg. to production of sounds.
2. Acoustic -accdg. to transmission of sounds.
3. Auditive -accdg. to perception of sounds.
PHONOLOGY -classification of the sounds within the system of a particular language or languages.
Categories:
>Phones -human sounds
>Phonemes -units which distinguish meaning in a language.
>Allophones -non-distinctive units.
Division of sounds:
>Consonants
>Vowels (a,e,i,o,u)
>Diphthongs
PHONOTACTICS -deals with combinations of sounds possible and where sounds can occur in a syllable.
Syllable -major structure for the organisation of sounds.
>on set - beginning
>rhyme -everything after the beginning
>nucleus -vowel or vowel like centre
>coda -right edge
PROSODY- concerned with features of words and sentences above the level of individual sounds.
-stress, pitch, intonation
PHONETICS is the area of language that mainly look at three things:
>Articulatory Phonetics - how we physically produce sounds.
>Acoustic Phonetics -how we analyze the sound transmission and patterns including the conditions in which they are produced.
>Auditory Phonetics- how our ears, auditory system and brain filler and process these sounds once they receive them.
>Place of Articulation- identifying the place, location, spot and mouth organs involved in the triggering and production of speech sounds.
-Labial (b,p,m,w)
Alveolar (a,t,z,s,h)
Palatal (j,ch,zh,sh,y)
Velar (g,k,w)
Glottal
Dental (t)
>Manner of Articulation - describing the manner in which these mouth organs trigger or produce speech sounds.
Stops & Affricates ( b, d, j, g, p t, ch, k)
Fricatives ,(z, s, zh, sh)
Nasals (m, n)
Glides (w, y)
Types of Speech Context
1. Intrapersonal - within yourself .
2. Interpersonal - between two or more people.
>Dyad
>Small group
3. Public
Types of Speech style
•Intimate - private language within family or very closed group.
•Casual - language used between friends.
•Consultative - used in semi-formal communication.
•Formal - used in speaking to medium or large groups (strangers, professional or older person).
•Frozen - used generally in a very formal setting.
Types of speech act
1. Locution (Utterance) - uttering certain sentences with certain meaning.
2. Illocution (Intention) - speaker intend to constitute a certain act of praise or criticism.
3. Perlocution (Response) - act of bringing certain change or making the listeners or audience believe into something.
Types of Communicative Strategy
1. Nomination - to open a new topic.
2. Restriction - limiting or following a specific instruction.
3. Turn-taking - a chance to all speakers to speak.
4. Topic-control - to avoid unnecessary information and topic change.
5. Topic-shifting - movement of conversation with effective transition
6. Repair - addressing the problems in a conversation
7.Termination - close-initiating expression that ends a topic.
Types of Speeches
A. According to purpose
•Expository Speech - to give information.
•Persuasive Speech - to convince the listener.
•Entertainment Speech
B. According to delivery
•Reading from manuscript - reading a manuscript while delivering the speech.
•Memorized Speech - you should memorized the content of your speech. Freed from manuscript or notes.
•Impromptu Speech - little or no preparation at all.
•Extemporaneous Speech - literally making up the words of your speech as you were delivering your speech
C. Principles of Speech Writing
•Choosing the topic
•Analyzing the audience
•Sourcing the information
•Outlining and organizing the speech contents
D. Principles of Speech delivery
LITERATURE
It is a body of all written works (nations, people, group or culture)
•Folklore - traditionally derived and orally transmitted literature.
•Folktales - reflects the people's belief handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth.
•Epilogue - conclusion or final part of non-dramatic literary work.
•Genre -distinctive type of literary composition such as epic, tragedy, comedy and novel.
•Hieroglyphics -oldest form of Egyptian writing.
•Soliloquy -speech made by a person who reveals his thoughts.
•Allegory -narrative whose meaning is beneath the surface.
•Cacophony-literary term which means harsh and discordant sounds introduced for poetic effect.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
1. Synecdoche
2. Simile
3.Personification
4. Oxymoron
5. Metonomy
6. Metaphor
7. Irony
8. Hyperbole
9. Euphemism
10. Ellipsis
11. Asyndeton
12. Apostrophe
Poem -artistic quality that appeals to or stirs the imagination, in any medium.
Classification of Poem
1. Ballad
2. Black verse
3. Dramatic monologue
4. Elegy
5. Epic
6. Eulogy
7. Free verse
8. Haiku
9. Idyll
10. Lyrics
11. Narrative
12. Ode
13. Sonnet
14. Tanka
Elements of a Short Story
1. Plot- The arrangement of incidents or events in a story.
•Exposition
•Conflict
Types:
a. Internal man vs himself
b. External man vs man
-man vs nature
-man vs society
-man vs unknown
-man vs supernatural
-man vs time
•Rising Action
•Climax
•Falling Action
•Resolution
2. Character
a. Flat Character
b. Round or Dynamic Character
c. Stereotyped Character
•Protagonist -main character
•Antagonist -opponent
3. Setting -where &when story takes place.
4. Atmosphere -mood or tone of the story.
5. Style -the ways the author expresses himself and conveys his ideas and central purpose.
Sources: shs book, pdf files & other online sources
https:www.majait.net